Religion (72)
Islamicate Civilization
Introduction
In Islamicate civilization, there are three movements that can be identified. That is the “militarizing of agrarian based political authority” and “the assertion of shari’I legal and social relations”. Another movement is the rise of “Sufi experience and teaching”. The movements play different roles. Most people do not understand what Islam is. People have different views about Islam. Some think Islam is a religion and others think Islam is a form of civilization. Others consider Islam to be a type of life and social disorder.
The differences in views have forced historians to carry out research to differentiate the concept. For instance Hodgson has tried to analyze Islam so as to enable the audience understand it. This paper analyzes the concepts of Shariah-mindedness. It identifies how the concept is different and how it is related to the three movements listed above. It also analyzes how the concept has helped Hodgson understand Muhammad.
Discussion
Most people argue that Islam is a group of spiritual attitudes that are connected by a universal reference to Muhammad and the qu’ran. Almost all Muslims in the world recognize Islam as stated above. Many historians like Hodgson have carried out a series of research to explain what Islam is. Hodgson in his book tries to address the concept of Islam and calls it a venture. Shariah- mindedness refers to the inability of Muslim to think beyond the sharia law. Hodgson in his book has addressed the concept of sharia mindedness (Hodgson1984).He argues that there are various people that have influenced Islam.
First, the western scholastics have affected Islam in different ways. For instance, they have influenced how Muslims think. This has forced the author to rescue Islam from western writers. In addition, the Muslim religious leaders have affected Islam in different ways. The Muslim religious leaders influence how Muslims think about their religion. The Muslim leaders are bound by the teaching of the Muslim religion and encourage the Muslim believers to comply with the teachings. Another group that has influenced Islam is the “Arabist bias”. “Arabist bias’ started in the 19 century in Europe. The “Arabist bias” view Mecca and medina important as they define the true faith among the Muslims. The Arabist Islam culture is treated as a culture that appears in the Arabic language.
The Arabist treats culture from other parts as foreign though they were established by the founders of the Muslim communities. Though the Muslim culture is expressed differently by various languages, the practices and beliefs are common among all the Muslims. Some of the religious concepts are derived from Arabic. This is evidenced by the following quotation “Though Islamicate culture is expressed in many languages…customary practices has been common “… technical terms in religion an also some of the fields have commonly been derived from Arabic…”(Hodgson1984, p3).
Most scholars have found it difficulty to prove that Islam is an expression of the minds of the Arabs. Apart from the scholars, the public has also found it hard to prove if Islam is an expression of the minds of the Arabs. Islam is a religion that was developed in Arabia by Arabs. The religion was formed from the visions of the Arabs. The Sharia mindedness incorporates the Ulama bias which most people associate with Arabs. The sharia mindedness is developed from the Islamic religious rules. The Islamic religion consists of the Mecca and medina. Most of the laws, customs and political authority have been connected with the prophet and the declaration of the Qu’ran. In most Muslim countries, Islam has tried to ensure the activities are inline with the prophet and the Qu’ran (Hodgson1984).
Hodgson argues that the Ulama has contributed a lot in making the sharia mindedness different. The Ulama defines what Islam should be. For instance, it does not encourage division in the community. It also encourages the community to observe the commands given by God. In order to understand the concept of sharia mindedness, Hodgson tries to differentiate Islam in terms of religion and culture. He defines Islam as a religion and also as a culture which he refers to Islamicate. This is to help him separate the Muslim features that are related to man and those which are related to God. Hodgson considers Arabic to be a form of cultural strain. There are different types of cultural strains apart from Arabic like Turkish, Persian etc (Hodgson1984).
Sharia mindedness is also part of other orientations in the Muslim community like Sufism and modernism. The Sharia mindedness orientation is different from others as it is aimed at showing the relationship between Islamic and the Islamicate culture in the world. The other movements do not show the difference between culture and religion. The sharia mindedness is related to Sufism experience and teaching. Sufism is considered as the “adherent of the inner, mystical dimensions of Islam” (Hodgson 1984).
Most scholars have defined Sufism as the science that is aimed at turning the heart away from God. Hobson argues that defining Sufism would affect the historical reality and make it difficulty to understand Islamic faith and Islamicate civilization. If Sufism is defined strictly, it would affect Islamic diversity. There are various teachings that are associated with Sufism. For instance, Sufis believed to be near before God and adopt the divine presence after death and final judgment. The Sufis are aimed at pleasing God by restoring within them the ancient state of Fitra that is stated in the Quran. This is evidenced by the following quotation “such an experience anticipate some aspect of what the Sufis meant by reliance on God.” ((Hodgson1984, p398).
In this case, Sufism is supposed to avoid all activities that affect their relationship with God. This makes it easy for the Sufism to realize the benefits of divine unity. To join Sufism, the believers must find a teacher as the teacher is important in helping one grow. The teacher should be allowed to teach from the authority. In this case, the teacher is supposed to transmit light from his heat to the heart of the learner. In addition, the teacher is supposed to teach the students according to the law. In Sufism believers believe in Muhammad. The Shariah mindedness is related to the Sufis as it is aimed at separating the religious beliefs among Muslim communities and their culture. This helps them understand Islam better. In sharia mindedness, people are guided by the law in their daily activities. They should ensure their activities are inline with the law and the prophet teachings. On the other hand, in Sufism teaching and experience, believers are guided by the law and the prophet, Muhammad. They should ensure their actions are inline with the law (Hodgson 1984).
Further, the sharia- mindedness is related to the “assertion of Shari'i legal and social relations”. Most of the activities political, economic and legal in the Muslim community are based on the sharia law. The Muslim communities have a wide range of sharia laws that guide their activities. The legal processes in the court and outside the court are supposed to be based on the sharia law. This is to ensure the community respects the laws established by the founders of the Muslim community (Hodgson 1984).
They are also supposed to ensure the legal activities are inline with the teachings of the Muhammad. Though civilization has contributed a lot in the Muslim community both economically, politically and socially, most Muslims ensure they respect the sharia law. In Shariah mindedness, the community strongly believes in the sharia law. Most leaders in the community argue that the civilization should be based on the Muslim faith. This implies that the civilization should not affect the Muslim faith and the teachings. The laws also affect socialization in the community. They affect how the community interacts with other people. The interaction in the community should be based on the teaching of Muhammad and the sharia law (Hodgson 1984).
The militarizing of the agrarian-based political authority movement is also related to sharia minded. The militarizing of the agrarian- based political authority affects how the Muslim community views civilization. Some of the people accept civilization while others do not accept civilization. The political authority in the country should be based on the sharia law and the teachings provided the leader Muhammad. Any political authority that does not carry its activities according to the sharia law is considered unethical. This is because it affects faith of the believers and their life. The sharia mindedness is aimed at differentiating the Muslim religion and culture so as to avoid such issues (Hodgson 1984).
Further, Shariah mindedness is related to Muhammad’s challenges. Before one can understand Shariah mindedness one should comprehend the challenges faced by Muhammad. Muhammad is the one who established the Islam religion. Most Muslims refer to Muhammad as a messenger. They also consider him, to be a prophet. He is also considered as the last prophet according to the Quran and among Muslims. Most Muslims argue that Muhammad helped restore the faith after it was corrupted by other prophets like Abraham and Moses. Muhammad faced a series of challenges during his reign and the author should understand them so as to be able to understand sharia mindedness. For instance, Muhammad faced opposition from other people.
He also faced social challenge as he was an orphan. Moreover, Muhammad faced idol worship and cultural differences. The challenges impacted his life in different ways. Understanding the challenges helps one understand the origin of sharia mindedness and how it has grown. For instance, Muhammad believed in the Quran and the sharia law and this helped him overcome the challenges he faced. In addition, one should understand the role of Muhammad in the Quran and how he managed to challenge the traditional values of the Arab community.
Sharia mindedness is an extension of the challenges faced by Muhammad. During that time, Muhammad had different views about other cultures, people and this influenced his behavior and teaching (Hodgson 1984). For instance, he saw other prophets unethical as they influenced the faith. He did not also encourage influence from other cultures. This forced the prophet to develop laws that were aimed at restoring the faith and ensuring all activities were inline with the laws. Sharia mindedness is an extension of the problems Muhammad faced as the Muslims value the sharia law and the Quran. They do not accept influence from other cultures and ensure all their actions are inline with the sharia law and the qu’ran. Hence, the Muslim decisions are influenced by Muhammad’s challenges.
Though the three movements are important among the Muslim community or Islamic civilization, The Sufi experience and teaching is more faithful to the challenges faced by Muhammad unlike the other two movements. The Sufi experience and teachings are inline with the sharia law and the teaching of the Quran as provided by Muhammad. The Sufism movement encourages the believers to ensure all the activities social, political or economic are inline with the sharia law (Hodgson 1984).
Conclusion
In conclusion the “Sufi experience and teaching movement” and “the assertion of Shari’I legal and social relations” have contributed a lot to sharia mindedness. For instance, the beliefs held by the Sufi and teachings have influenced how Muslims behave and think. The Muslims are supposed to ensure all the activities in the community are done according to the sharia law.
Also, the social interactions should be based on the sharia law and the teaching of Muhammad. “The militarizing of agrarian based political authority” has also influenced how Muslims think and behave. The political organizations in the community are supposed to be inline with the teachings of the Muslim community. The Sufi teaching and experience is more important to the Muslim community than the other two movements as it is more faithful to the problems presented by Prophet Mohammad.
Reference
Hodgson,M.G.The Venture of Islam: conscience and history in a World civilization, Volume 1.rUniversity of Chicago Press,1984
Islam
1. The name Islam is derived from the Arabic word “salam” which means peace (Robinson, 2007). However, the name Islam is mostly translated to mean submission or surrender. The name Islam represents the Islamic ideals that every human being should submit or surrender him or her self to God.
2. There are six fundamental belief of Islam (Robinson, 2007). The first one is existence of a single and indivisible God who is referred to as Allah. Islam considers Allah to be omnipotent, just, and merciful and is the creator of heaven and earth. The second fundamental belief of Islam is the divine scriptures which they refer to as the Qur’an. The Qur’an is believed to be God’s words dictated by angel Gabriel to Prophet Mohammad. Messengers of God also form part of the fundamental beliefs of Islam. These messengers are such as Adam, Noah, Abraham, David, Moses, Jesus and Mohammad. Islam also believes in the coming of the judgment day when people will be judged based on their deeds on earth. Angels also form part of the fundamental beliefs of Islam and another belief is on the supremacy of God.
3. The most important practices that define Islam are the “Five Pillars of Islam” (Religious Fact, 2010). These refer to five religious duties that every Muslim must perform. The first one is daily confession of faith which is referred to as “shahada” in Islam. A person must confess that there is no god but God and Mohammad is the prophet of God. The second pillar is the daily ritual prayer known as “salat by the Muslims. This prayer is performed five times a day; at dawn, at midday, afternoon, at sunset and in the evening. Prayers must be directed to the kaba shrine in Mecca. The third pillar is paying the alms tax (zakat). Every adult Muslim is required to pay the alms tax which goes into helping the needy. The rate of zakat is usually 2.5% of a person’s entire possession. The forth pillar is fasting during the month of Ramadan, a ritual referred to as “sawm”. This marks the commemoration of the reveal of the Qur’an to humanity during the month of Ramadan. Adult Muslims are required to abstain from eating, drinking and sexual intercourse during daytime. The fifth pillar is pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj). Each Muslim is expected to undertake the pilgrimage at least once in his or her life time. This takes place during the month of Dhu al-Hijja.
4. The first goal of Islam is preservation of the Islamic religion (Knol, 2009). It is the responsibility of every Muslim to ensure that the Islamic religion has been preserved. Muslims have the duty to ensure the Islamic message has been spread throughout the world. The second goal is preservation of life. The Islamic religion respects the sanctity of life and protects the life of every individual. Actions that threaten human life such as murder and abortion are strongly condemned by Islam. Another goal is preservation of wealth. It the duty of Islam to ensure that everybody’s property is protected and that wealth is shared justly. Life and property are sacred according to the Islamic religion. Preservation of Mind is another goal of Islam. It is the goal of Islam to keep the minds of all its faithfuls clean and pure. The fifth goal is preservation of lineage. This refers to prohibition of transgression against lineage. The final goal is preservation of honor. This goal refers to the duty of Muslims to abstain from irresponsible sexual behaviors.
5. Islam has high regard for authority (Knol, 2009). The biggest indication of this, is the respect that Muslim accord to the authority of God. Muslim believe that God is mighty and the source of all authority. Muslims also hold a lot of respect for humans who have been assigned position of authority. Such people include prophets such prophet Mohammad. Islamic religion also advocates respect for political authority. Muslims respect authority bestowed on the Islamic laws. This is evident in Islamic societies where there exist strong social structures with clear authority figures. Muslims are very committed to following the Islamic laws since they believe that they carry authority from God.
1. The Qur’an plays a very central role in the lives of Muslims (The Islam for All, 2009). Political aspects in Islam are derived from the Qur’an. Muslim political organizations follow the sharia laws which are derived from the Qur’an. The sharia laws contain the Ideal for a Muslim life and dictate how a Muslim should conduct him or her self, how to relate with others and the relationship between human and God. Sharia laws cover all aspects of life.
2. Philosophy is closely associated with theology in Islam. The sharia laws, which govern all aspect of Muslim lives, were developed by traditional Islamic philosophers (The Islam for All, 2009). Islamic philosophers have also been used to interpret various content of the Qur’an. In Islam people are allowed to have different philosophy.
3. Islamic art are best displayed in their drawing and decoration while their architecture is best displayed by their mosques. The infinite patterns are one of the earliest and most important forms of Islamic art (Irish Art Encyclopedia, 2010). These patterns represent the theme of worthlessness of mans earthly existence. The Mosques architecture symbolizes the unity of all Islamic believers. The Qur’an greatly influenced the Islamic art and architecture in that it prohibits worshipping and valuing of idols and symbols therefore arts that appear to break this law were prohibited.
Reference
Irish art Encyclopedia (2010), Islamic Art, retrieved on February 6, 2011, from http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/islamic-art.htm
Knol (2009), Principle Goals of Islam, retrieved on February 6, 2011, from http://knol.google.com/k/dawa/the-principal-goals-of-islam/1mgtj5kikvyop/11#
Religious Facts (2010), The Five Pillars of Islam, retrieved on February 6, 2011, from http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/practices/five_pillars.htm
Robinson (2007), Introduction to Islam, retrieved on February 6, 2011, from http://www.religioustolerance.org/isl_intr.htm
The Islam for All (2009), Islamic Theology and Philosophy, retrieved on February 6, 2011, from http://theislam4all.com/islamic_theology_and_philosophy.html
The Role of Religion in Early American Literature
Written by AcademicWritingTips.org
American literature has been deeply rooted on the Presbyterian and puritan religions of the early centuries. The role of religion is especially paramount among the religions which lacked any belief in the existence of God. This was the basis of the early American romantic writers who infused the spiritual aspect of religion with the literal elements hence making the entire religion part of literature.
Religion as a belief that has in place certain doctrines which are followed or adhered to by the followers had to include literary works as a way of making the puritan ethics known between various generations. Among the puritans the Bible was a source of reference such that the early American writers had to clarify the content in their work through the puritan books. Hence religion played a significant role in the early American literature.
Discussion
The puritans are depicted as the pure and sacred people who lived in the early centuries and they are representatives of religion in this research. The puritans lived by adhering to the ethics and morals that were written down in their holy book of the bible. Such that puritans who failed to read the bible were thought to be devil worshippers as they lacked the direction of the doctrines in the bible. Similarly, the bible played a great role in determining the nature of events which the puritans would engage in as much as bible studies which were held very often.
Therefore, the puritans were quite in touch with the literary side of the doctrines as well as living as per the requirements (Trent and Doreen, 2006). Similarly, among the American puritans who lived between 1800 and 1865 had borrowed intensively from the European puritans. During the same era, the most significant religion was made up of protestant evangelicalism which is depicted as having diverse religious revivals which attempted to explain the relationship between God’s divine nature and that of human beings.
The civil war in America was a critical moment in religion as the early American writers tried as much as possible to delude any existence of God as he would have helped end the war to reduce loss of lives and human suffering. However, religious movements were defensive and were it not for this defence, present day literature on God could have been nipped off as belief in God would have ceased with the writers decision that there was no God (Tripod, 2009).
At some point in the early 19th century the puritans had a diversified perception of the problem of veil, human nature and inability to attain salvation through personal efforts. These views elicited numerous criticism form writers who responded to the observations through human self-reliance which was portrayed in the explanation of the darkness in human souls where salvation was not eminent. The morals and values which were present in the holy book were against the American culture which was portrayed as not adhering to the doctrines in the Bible although the rival beliefs led to emergence of certain cults and sects like free-masonry, as well as, occult (Gabler-Hover and Sattelmeyer, 2006).
The other contribution of religion on the early American literature is exhibited by the fact that as the writers tried to unravel the mystery which was the role of God and Jesus Christ in religion, the Bible had to be used as a reference material. Similarly, the early American writers had to contend that the two supernatural beings were not only judges but also role models to the puritans who were expected to live as per the given doctrines.
The demystifying process was responsible for the introduction of religious liberalization which was brought to lecture halls as philosophical aspects of religion. Up to the present day, the early American literature especially in philosophy borrowed deeply from religion practiced by the puritans (Puritans, 2010).
The puritans of the 18th century had developed an influence that they were intelligent and more knowledgeable than any other denominations in the word at that time such that all the other religious were found to be lacking in various perspectives. For instance all churches had rotten behaviors due to subsequent contact with the roman pagan civilization such that a restructuring of the bible supremacy over the puritans was eminent.
Consequently, the puritans enforced an objection of all rituals and ornaments which were common in the churches of the 19th century with other religions being forced to abandon their liturgical order for the puritan one. The moves by the puritans were ignored by mainstream churches and the term puritan was coined as a mockery for the obsessive sanctification activities (Trent, 2006).
The puritans played a great role towards shaping the culture of religion in the early American literature with the introduction of attributes that are unique to various cultures. For instance the cultural values and morals which are used to define the norms have been distinct in the early American literature courtesy of the puritans. Other cultural values brought forward by the puritans include racism with the African American puritans being regarded lowly as compared to their white counterparts (Helium.com, 2000).
The gender roles as they are portrayed in early American literature have borrowed heavily on the puritan religion for instance the wife’s roles in the kitchen and that of the husband in providing for the family. The other gender role that has been used widely by American writers is the aspect of wives encouraging their husbands to render their services to God through preaching and other missionary work. The role of family in the society was established by the puritans who categorized marriage as a holy institution and child bearing as the ultimate result of any marriage (Gabler-Hover, 2006).
The centrality of religion in major early American literature is yet another vital role played by religion as the writers had been given a distinct objective of looking at religion as the core of every activity. Religion touches on almost all dimensions of life such that it would be difficult to refer to any human activity without having to mention God, faith or religious morals (Tripod, 2009).
Conclusion
In conclusion religion has played a key role in the development of early American literature as the writers have borrowed heavily from the puritans. The Bible as the very first literary article among the religious and literary groups has been a source of teachings, as well as, material for their written work.
References
Gabler-Hover, Janet and Sattelmeyer, Robert. "Religion." American History Through Literature. Gale Cengage. Retrieved on December 8, 2010 from: http://www.enotes.com/american-history-literature-cc/ religion. 2006
Helium.com. Puritan ethics as depicted in early American literature, retrieved on December 8, 2010 from: http://www.helium.com/items/1050451-literary- analysis-puritan-ethics-as-depicted-in-early-american-literature?page=2 2000
Puritans." Members of a religious and social movement. 2010. 28 Nov, 2010.
http://www.laughtergenealogy.com/bin/histprof/misc/puritan.html. 2010
Trent, W.P. and Doreen, C.V. “Puritan Religion on Early American Literature”. W. Insomnia Cures Reviews. Retrieved on December 8, 2010 from:
http://www.insomniacuresreviews.com/puritan-religion-on-early-american- literature.html. 2006
Tripod "Puritan Life and Religion." Retrieved on December 8, 2010 from: http://fervis.tripod.com/ 2009.
Confucianism, Heterodoxy and Heresy in Imperial China
Written by AcademicWritingTips.orgConfucianism denotes an oriental religious and moral system that was developed and taught by the sage known as Confucius. The term also means “The school of scholars” or it can loosely be taken to mean “The religion of Confucius”. The system has governed various aspects of the Chinese people such as religion, politics, morals as well as social life, and it has had a considerable influence on the life of the Chinese dynasties up to its decline in the 20th century. Confucianism has been in competition with other religious views of the world that have emanated from Taoism also known as Daoism as well as Buddhism (Crystal Links, 2010).
Confucianism has experienced waning and rising popularity and practice during various dynasties as well as changes to its upholding. In a long time Confucianism has been promoted by the leadership of the Chinese dynasties and thus taking on the name of the orthodox religion of the state during the ancient dynasties. The religion was viewed as a state religion and it was practiced by the Chinese emperor and other top state officials for the good of the Chinese people.
Any other religious views that were anti-Confucian were considered heretical and therefore a heterodoxy. This paper reviews the Late Imperial Chinese view of ‘heterodoxy’ and heresy’ in relation to the three common faiths-Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism. It also compares the views held in the Late Imperial Chinese period with those held during the Han dynasty (Crystal Links, 2010).
The Late Imperial Chinese period occurred after the end of the Mongolian rule (1368), but prior to the making of the Republic of China (1912). This period constitutes the two dynasties-the Qing dynasty and Ming dynasty. At times the Yuan dynasty is also included. Since the ancient dynasties, prior to the Late Imperial China Confucianism was always considered the orthodoxy and the opposing or alternative views identified in Taoism were considered the heterodoxy. Much of the rebelliousness and dissent evident in china in relation to Confucianism are based on the opposition to the central system of values by the minority groups that partook of the alternative views presented mainly by Taoism (Shek, 2004).
The Chinese government had recognized such teachings as being heretical because they were viewed as being against the government supported system of Confucianism (these were termed “xiejiao” or heretical teachings). Heretical elements often encountered suppression in earlier dynasties, more evident in the Ming-Qing dynasties which can be identified with the use of words such as “yiduan” or principles that are considered alien and “zuodao” or deviance habits or nature. The interesting nature of these rebellious happenings is that the orthodoxy was identified with the elite whereas; the opposing Taoist heterodoxy was popular with the masses (Shek, 2004).
Despite the differences in views held by the two sides, they still shared fundamental believes such as fate, heaven, and other concepts and believes of a supernatural nature. The Confucians were thus not a distinctive set of people and there was an evident flow of ideas between the masses and the elite that mainly held to Confucianism. The suppression of heterodoxy persisted from the Han dynasty onwards till all the ‘heretical views’ by Buddhism and Daoism had come under firm control by the government. This happened between the Han and Tang dynasty.
At the start of the Late Imperial China period these views were firmly under government control and the leadership of these dynasties had nothing to worry about their influence as long as they were under control. Religious tolerance was finally accepted during the Ming and Qing dynasty (Imperial China period), because the alternative views from Buddhism and Taoism were firmly under control. However, other religious views were only tolerated on condition that they did not portray any conflict with the values held by the state more especially the social ethics held by the state as well as their rituals.
This tolerance was based on “lijiao” a concept that literarily meant “ritual and teaching”. This was developed during the song dynasty by neo-Confucians of the period. “Lijiao” later made up a system of belief that was recognized and upheld by all three groups- Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism. The system constituted common aspects of world views that were acceptable to all groups and it focused mostly on ritual and ethical teachings and it upheld similar principles in dualism (“yang and Yin”, fate and life. The tolerance brought up orthopraxis which later came to be recognized as orthodoxy. The Late Imperial period is thus considered as the most liberal period in Chinese belief systems because it was tolerant rather than oppressive of other alternative world views that were emergent in the Chinese empire (Shek, 2004).
On the other hand, the earlier Han dynasty was so restrictive and oppressive; probably because it is the dynasty to which the revival of Confucianism can be attributed after Confucianism’s suppression by the Qin dynasty. The Qin dynasty greatly suppressed Confucianism to an extent of almost making it history, because much of its teachings and literary documentations were lost during this dynasty. However, the discovery of hidden Confucian classics within the walls of one of the scholar’s house marked the revival of Confucian teachings in the Han dynasty that succeeded the Qin dynasty.
Confucian scholars were sponsored by the leadership during the Han dynasty and the doctrines of Confucianism were once again introduced and approved during this period. As the Han dynasty established its rule Confucianism became the states philosophy in an official state of recognition (Wyatt & Cosmo, 2003). During the Han dynasty Confucian doctrines defined government systems and formed the assessment basis, and they also made the background upon which the curriculum was based in teaching schools.
This state actually persisted with no significant endeavors to bring up a system other than Confucianism up till the 20th century. Taoist cosmology is known to have significantly diminished under the Han dynasty that had ascended to power and imposed a lot of suppression (Shek, 2004). Despite the fact that the Confucian Han dynasty greatly suppressed the Taoism views, it still remained alive and thriving at the periphery though not visible. This may be explained using the Jungian psychology which holds that repressed charges of psyche (ideas, thoughts and emotions) gain energy while repressed until they get driven into lower levels of consciousness, but finally erupting when the time is ripe without any constraint.
The history of china as far back as three thousand years; has thus been a contest between the heretical, heterodoxy (Taoism and Buddhism) versus the orthodoxy Confucianism. However, Confucianism as thrived and been able to revive itself despite the suppression during the Qin dynasty. It has been able to thrive through government support and suppression of other forms of alternative belief systems (Cohen, 2005). In order to mitigate the rebellion the leadership has had to offer tolerance, but under close monitoring to ensure that the alternative views did not take over the control of the moral and religious systems of the Chinese dynasties.
The major difference evident between the Han dynasty and the Late Imperial Chinese period is tolerance, unlike the Han dynasty the Late Imperial Chinese period was a period of tolerance and the government was able to accept alternative world views as long their views on certain principle aspects were common and they did not interfere or threaten the already set up fabric of religious and moral nature. The Han dynasty was also characterized with a lot of suppression that was directed to the alternative world views presented by Taoism and Buddhism.
On the other hand, the Late Imperial Chinese period was characterized with greatly reduced suppression with considerations only made when the alternative views or teachings were perceived to be contradictory in nature. The Han dynasty was also characterized with a revival mood in which the emperor sponsored scholars of Confucianism and actively engaged it in the curriculum design.
While on the other hand, the Late Imperial Chinese period did not have such a kind of enthusiasm towards furthering Confucianism. Under the Han dynasty alternative world views such as Buddhism and Taoism were rigidly considered heretical without any further considerations. However, in the Late Imperial Chinese period these alternative views were only considered heretical if they were viewed as a potential threat to the main system (Shek, 2004).
References
Cohen, L. M. (2005), Kinship, Contract, Community, and State: Anthropological perspectives on China. Stanford University Press
December, 2010 from http://www.crystalinks.com/confucianism.html
Shek, H. R. (2004), Heterodoxy in Late Imperial China. University of Hawaii Press
Wyatt, J. D. and Cosmo, D. N (2003), Political frontiers, ethnic boundaries, and human geographies in Chinese history, Routledge Publishers
Sikhism is a religion that was founded in the fifteenth century. It is a monotheist religion founded by Punjab based on the teachings of the ten successive Sik Gurus and Guru Nanak Dev Ji. The systems of religious philosophy of Sikhism religion are known as Gurmat in traditional terms. Sikhism combines the two religion- Islam and Hinduism. Sikhism religion has aspects of similarities in religion like Hinduisms, Sikhism and Sufism which is an Islam. The term Sikh in Hindu refers to a disciple. The Sikhism followers however claim that this religion was directly revealed by God.
The basics believe and practices of Sikhism are in one way or the other related to aspects on Hinduism and Islam. The region believes in a God who is self created seen as the one who exists and created himself. The main aspects in Sikhism religion are to become the Lord’s image. This means that the aim of an individual is to live according to the teachings in the religion.
The Sikhs like the Muslim reject that Jesus is lord and they teach that God is never born or died just like in Islam. Unlike Hinduism, Sikhism is a monotheist’s religion like Islam. The concept of God in Hindu and Islam is similar. In Islam God created the universe while in Sikhism God and the universe is one entity. Just like Hinduism, Sikhism believes in reincarnation which is an aspect denied in Islam.
The practices of Sikhism religion are closely related to Islam. There are a specified number of prayers to be done in a day. For Sikhism is three times while five in Islam. They are monotheists and don’t worship idols; concept similar to Islam but different from Hindu. Just like the Hindu, Sikhism practices cremation of the dead. And they also do not believe in the caste system seen in Hindu religion (Yasser, 2010).
Reference:
Yasser, I K (2010) Concept of god in Hinduism, Sikhism and Islam. Retrieved from
http://www.compare-religions.com
On December 10, 2010
Sikhism is a religion that was founded in the fifteenth century. It is a monotheist religion founded by Punjab based on the teachings of the ten successive Sik Gurus and Guru Nanak Dev Ji. The systems of religious philosophy of Sikhism religion are known as Gurmat in traditional terms. Sikhism combines the two religion- Islam and Hinduism. Sikhism religion has aspects of similarities in religion like Hinduisms, Sikhism and Sufism which is an Islam. The term Sikh in Hindu refers to a disciple. The Sikhism followers however claim that this religion was directly revealed by God.
The basics believe and practices of Sikhism are in one way or the other related to aspects on Hinduism and Islam. The region believes in a God who is self created seen as the one who exists and created himself. The main aspects in Sikhism religion are to become the Lord’s image. This means that the aim of an individual is to live according to the teachings in the religion.
The Sikhs like the Muslim reject that Jesus is lord and they teach that God is never born or died just like in Islam. Unlike Hinduism, Sikhism is a monotheist’s religion like Islam. The concept of God in Hindu and Islam is similar. In Islam God created the universe while in Sikhism God and the universe is one entity. Just like Hinduism, Sikhism believes in reincarnation which is an aspect denied in Islam.
The practices of Sikhism religion are closely related to Islam. There are a specified number of prayers to be done in a day. For Sikhism is three times while five in Islam. They are monotheists and don’t worship idols; concept similar to Islam but different from Hindu. Just like the Hindu, Sikhism practices cremation of the dead. And they also do not believe in the caste system seen in Hindu religion (Yasser, 2010).
Reference:
Yasser, I K (2010) Concept of god in Hinduism, Sikhism and Islam. Retrieved from
http://www.compare-religions.com
On December 10, 2010
There are many religions in the world. Examples include Greco Roman religion and Judeo- Christian religion. The religions differ in terms of their beliefs and values. Also, they differ in terms of rituals and practices. The religions have prophets who play varicose roles. Lastly, the religions have gods. This paper analyzes the Judeo- Christian religion and the Greco roman religions. It compares various aspects like prophets, life after death, beliefs and gods and their role in creation of the world and man.
Discussion
Greco-Roman religion is a name used to refer to both Greek and Roman pre Christian religions. This is because the religions are similar. Religion in ancient Rome consisted of various religious beliefs and cult practices that were considered by Romans as indigenous and important to their identity as human beings. It also consisted of cult practices that were imported from other people who were under the Roman rule. Romans like other people offered cult to deities who influenced their lives. The deities influenced the natural world and also human activities (Johnson, 2010).
The establishment of the cults was attributed to Rome’s divine ancestors and founders. In Roman religion, participating in traditional religion rituals was normal. It was also considered morally right. The Greek roman religion had various beliefs, gods and they had prophets. The Greek and Roman gods worshiped in the two nations play similar roles and duties. However, the Gods had different names. The Roman religion differed from the Greek religion in some aspects.
For example, the Roman religion was considered more of a ritual and ceremony. The Roman religion included deities of the Greek pantheon, but it was comprehensive. The roman religion accepted gods from different groups living under the Roman rule. For instance, it accepted the Mithrsa gods, Persian sun gold and the Isis. The Romans made sacrifices to the gods (Johnson, 2010).
The roman religion was less practical than the Greek religion. The Greek and Romans gods performed similar functions. Religion in Greece and Rome was a polytheistic. The religions embraced different gods and goddesses. For instance, in the Roman Empire, the people embraced many gods and goddesses who absorbed the deities of the various countries they conquered.
The gods and goddesses in Greek religion and Roman religion had different names, but performed similar roles. For example, in Greek Zeus was considered as the father of the god and the sky gold. In Rome, Zeus was referred to as Jupiter and performed same role as the Zeus. Moreover, Hera and Juno were the names given to the wife of Zeus in both Greek and Rome respectively. Both Romans and Greek considered the goddess as goddess of marriage and childbirth. They also considered it as the goddesses of women (Johnson, 2010).
Further, Aphrodite was the named given to goddesses of love and beauty. In Rome, Aphrodite was referred as Venus. Moreover, Apolo was the god of sun, music and prophecy. Artemis was the goddess of hunting, fertility and child birth. In Rome, Diana was the goddess of hunting, fertility and child birth. In Greek, Poseidon was the god of sea and was also responsible for causing earthquake. In Rome, Naptime was the god of sea and also caused earth quake. The gods play different roles like creation of the world and human beings (Chrēstou, 2005).
Judeo Christian is used to refer to a series of beliefs and ethics that are held common by Judaism and Christianity. Advocates of judeo -Christian concept support Christian argument that “Christianity is the heir to biblical Judaism”. They also argue that Christianity as a “religion exists and it is built on Judaism”. There are two major views of the relationship between Judaism and Christianity. That is new covenant theology and duo covenant theology. Jews and Christianity have different books. The order of the books in the Old Testament and the Hebrews bible differ.
Most of the Christian bible is mainly Jewish scripture. The Christian bible is used to teach morals and spiritual elements in the world. The prophets and patriarchs in Jewish scriptures are also common in Christianity. This is because Christianity uses the scriptures to understand important people or prophets in judeo- Christian religion. For example, they used it to understand Elijah, Moses and Abraham. Hence, the Jewish and Christian teachings are based on similar texts. The judeo Christian religion has only one God.
The god that Jewish and Christians believe to be omnipresent and omniscient. In contrast to Greco roman religion that has numerous gods and goddess. The judeo -Christian god played an important part in the creation of the world and human beings. For example, God created everything that is found in the world. He created all animals, human beings and plants. In addition, he created darkness and light. Moreover, Gold created the water bodies and the Land. On the other hand, the Greeks and Romans associated the creation of the world and human beings to the gods and goddesses.
They believe that each god and goddess played a major role in creating the world. God and goddesses in Greco Roman religion are depicted as statues having different features. For example, Apollo is depicted as “handsome and beardless young man”. In judeo Christian God is depicted using various things. For example, Gold is depicted as wind, storm and smoke (Gaustad &Noll, 2003).
Moreover, the Judeo -Christian religion and the Greco roman religions have prophets. The prophets are considered as people of wisdom. The prophets play different roles like conveying Gods message to the people. The Jewish teachings have Minor Prophets and Major Prophets. The prophets play similar roles. The minor prophets are not considered of less importance than other prophets in the bible. They are referred as minor due to the size of their work.
Not all prophets in judeo -Christian religion were seen as predictors of the future. Both minor and major prophets in Judeo Christian are viewed as people of wisdom as they speak on behalf of the people. The lord speaks to the people through the prophets. For instance, God warns and challenges the believer’s faith through the prophets. The prophets include Elijah, and Ezekiel. The prophets have played an important role in Judeo -Christian religion (Gaustad &Noll, 2003).
The Greco-Roman religion has also prophets who help convey message to the people. The prophets are used by gods sand goddesses to convey message. In addition, Judeo Christian religion and Greco- roman religion have similar arguments on morality. Morality in Judeo-Christian religion is used to differentiate Judeo Christian values and secular values. Christians determine what is good or bad. In Judeo Christian religion, God is the source of molar values.
Without God each society would make its own moral standards. In judeo-Christian religion, something is considered moral if it is inline with the Judeo Christian teaching. Additionally, it is considered morally right if it is inline with the beliefs and values of Judeo Christian religion (Canto-Sperber, 2008).. For example, God does not encourage murder and stealing as it is against his teaching. The society also views murder as immoral based on the Judeo Christian teaching. Moreover, in Greco-Roman religion, something is considered morally right if it is inline with the teachings, belief send values of the religion. The morality of action in both religions is determined by the teachings, belief, values and rituals (Gaustad &Noll, 2003).
After life is used to refer to the idea that consciousness continues after the body dies. The continuation can take place in spiritual from. People are believed to go to certain areas after death. The place is determined by god and is always based on ones action before dying. In Greek, the god Hades is considered the king of underworld. God Hermes is considered the messenger of the gods. Gold Hermes takes the dead soul of a person to god Hades.
Then Hermes leaves the soul on the banks of river sxty. This is the river between life and death. After that Charon who acts as ferry man takes the soul across the river to the underworld. Not all souls are taken to Hades, but those who have gold. After that the soul is judged by Aeacus, Rhadamanthus, and King Minos and send to the right place. The Romans use similar system as the Greeks. (Gaustad &Noll, 2003).
Judeo- Christians believe that souls go certain places after death. For instance, the souls can go to Heaven or hell. This is determined by ones actions. Souls of good people go to heaven. On the other hand, Souls of bad people go to Hell (Gaustad &Noll, 2003).The Judeo-Christian religion and the Greco roman religions have different religious beliefs. The beliefs are transferred through teaching of the congregation. For instance, in Judeo Christian religion, Christians are taught various beliefs and this makes it easy to transfer the beliefs from one generation to another (Gaustad &Noll, 2003).
Conclusion
The Judeo-Christian religion and Greco Roman religion have different beliefs, values and gods. Also, the religions have prophets. The prophets help convey message from the gods to the people. In addition, the Judeo-Christian religion and the Greco Roman religion have moral values. The morality of an action is judged based on the teachings, beliefs and values. Also, the religions have various beliefs on life after death. For example, Judeo-Christian believers believe that good souls go to heaven while bad souls go to Hell. Then God judges the souls. On the other hand, the Greco-Roman religion follows a different system from the Judeo religion. However, the souls go to the right place and they are judged by the gods based on the action of the person.
Reference
Chrēstou,K.P.(2005).Greek Orthodox Patrology: An Introduction to the Study of the Church Fathers.Orthodox Research Institute
Canto-Sperber,M.(2008).Moral disquiet and human life.Princeton University Press Johnson,T.L.(2010).Among the Gentiles: Greco-Roman Religion and Christianity.Yale University Press
Gaustad,S.E.,&Noll,M.A.(2003).A Documentary History of Religion in America: Since 1877.Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing
Buddhism religion is also viewed as a philosophy that encompasses various practices, beliefs and traditions. The religions basis is found in teachings of Siddhartha Gautama also known as Buddha or the ‘awakened one’. Buddha was a teacher and resident of the North Eastern subcontinent of India during the 4th and 6th Centuries BCE. Buddhist recognize him as the enlightened teacher that shared higher teachings to enlighten sentient mortals to end their suffering (dukkha) and attain piece and bliss (nirvana) and finally escape the rebirth cycle of suffering (Smith, 2010).
Buddhist teachings are grounded in some basic principles. Amongst them are the four noble truths, three marks of reality and the noble eightfold path. The three marks of existence, reality or the three truths form part of the Buddhists teachings. These three include suffering, impermanence and egoless ness.
Egoless ness (Anatta) is known as not-self. This mark states that there is no permanent self or soul, and it holds that humans are constantly changing through evolution. Impermanence (Anicca) holds that everything and all the experiences are unsteady, impermanent and inconstant and all things are in a constant flux of movement. Through the principle’s observation all things are either coming to being or ceasing to be, and as such nothing is here to last. The mark of suffering (Dukkha), states that suffering is an inevitable aspect of life and it originates from the act of not letting go the cravings of pleasure and temporary things as well as the need to avoid suffering and pain(Smith, 2010).
The four noble truths also form part of these teachings and these include the nature of suffering (Dukkha), suffering’s origin (Dukkha Samudaya), suffering's Cessation (Dukkha Nirodha) and the path (Dukkha Nirodha Gamini Patipada Magga).The noble truth of suffering is that clinging to anything that causes pain or displeasure is suffering. In this truth aging, birth, illness and death are all sufferings as well as other feelings and states of emotion such as sorrow and grief. The separation from anything that pleasing is also a form of suffering as well as the ability to acquire what is needed.
The origin of suffering truth is from the various cravings such as cravings for existence, sensual pleasures and extermination (Smith, 2010). These may be accompanied by lust or delight. The suffering’s cessation truth states that cessation is the actual end of the cravings and final give up as well as total non-reliance. The path is the fourth truth and this offers the eightfold path as the main and only way out of suffering.
The noble eightfold path offered by the fourth truth as the way to the cessation of truth is a principal teaching in Buddhism. The teachings hold that following the path is the only way out of suffering and attainment of self-awakening. The path helps in eliminating delusion, greed and hatred and it allows on to get insight about the true nature of reality, and the path is the fourth truth. This path is alternatively known as the middle path or middle way (Smith, 2010).
The path has eight elements all of which start with the word ‘right’ and each element are represented by a spoke on the dharma wheel (dharmacakra). The first element is the right view of the world which occurs without imposition of expectations on things that you see. The second element is the right intention which is derived from the right view and it holds that if we are able to escape from the hopes, expectations and fears that we have then we will not need to manipulate anything to our own desires.
The third element is the right speech, and in this element we find that once one’s intentions are pure then they are never embarrassed about their speech. The fourth element on the path is the right discipline it calls for giving up human tendencies to complicate things and it thus calls for simplicity. The fifth is right livelihood, this element calls for humans to earn their living and it calls for enjoyment of everyone’s job and place in the working world. The right effort is the sixth element which calls for no struggle and uptight approach on issues and tasks because that is wrong effort (Smith, 2010). The eighth element is right mindfulness. This involves clarity and precision and keenness on fine details of our experience. The last concentration is the last element. The first two elements govern wisdom and the subsequent three govern ethical conduct whereas the last 3 govern concentration (Smith, 2010).
There are two major branches of Buddhism Theravadan (the school of elders) and Mahayanan Buddhism. Theravada was the earliest form that closely observed a monastic form of Buddhism that concentrated on concentration and meditation, thus leaving out a big part of the populace. Theravadans emphasized monastic discipline and strict following of the scriptures of Buddhism.
However, with time there arose schism within the ranks and some Buddhists proposed a more inclusive form of the religion. This led to the rise of Mahayana Buddhism also literarily known as the big vehicle meant to include more people in to Buddhism (Groner & Hirakawa, 1993). This extended Buddhism beyond the monks. The Mahayana followers distinguished themselves by referring to the Theravada as the lesser vehicle. Theravadans strive for wisdom first and emphasizes education and rules, whereas the Mahayana Buddhists struggle for compassion first and emphasizes practice and intuition. Another form of Buddhism is Vajrayana Buddhism which bases on writings called tantras and makes use of ritual as a distinctive feature that defines it. The earlier meditations in the other forms of Buddhism are replaced by rituals in Vajrayana Buddhism (Groner & Hirakawa, 1993).
References
Groner, P. and Hirakawa A. (1993). A history of Indian Buddhism: from Śākyamuni to early Mahāyāna, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
Smith, H. A. (2010) Buddhism, BiblioBazaar Publishers.
Elements of Religious Traditions
Rituals of the Igbo
Many terms have been used to refer to various indigenous religions practiced by the African continent natives. Such terms include African indigenous religions, African traditional religions and African tribal religions. African religious traditions just like tribal regions practiced all over the world were practiced communal or tribal lines. African tribal regions have practices, teachings and rituals which determine the structure of societies. These regions played the major role of instilling people of a community with cultural awareness and understanding
The practices, traditional religion and spiritual concepts among the Igbo are known as Odinani. The Odinani is the panantheistic faith. The supreme god in this Igbo spirit is Chukwu who came before many other smaller deities known as Alusi. Chukwu is therefore, the Great Spirit among the Igbo people. The culture of the Igbo includes various traditions, practices and customs practiced by the Igbo people. This culture incorporates both the old and new concepts through outside or evolution influences.
The Odinani is used by researchers to understand the Igbo worldview knows as the Uwa. The supreme deity among the Igbo people is Chukwu who is genderless and greatly powerful. Just like the Christian God, Chukwu is unknown but he is believed to be the power behind the cosmos existence and all things in it. The Chi is the personal god of every individual. The chi guides one from doing what is evil. The traditions and customs of the Igbo people revolve around dance forms, visual art, cuisines, attire and dialects of language of the various Igbo subgroups.
There is a traditional priest who performs the sacred function to fulfill the natural need to serve the spirits and the gods. The traditional institution of the Igbo religion recognizes the spiritual care as demanded by the deities. The spiritual and sacred role played by the priests was to appease and combat the sprits. He was therefore, the one to be consulted, and approached for spiritual powers (Chigger and Hyginus, pp 65). Just like the Christian- Roman Catholic, the Igbo priest is also considered as a supernatural man with power to communicate directly with God. He would be consulted in cases of repentance and confessions.
The Igbo people believe in duality of gods and of the self. A person is composed of the soul and the body. This is similar to the Christian belief. They also believe in the existence on the spirit. The Christian trinity tales of God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy spirit. The Igbo spirit concept is known as the ori which is an entity independent of the soul and the body. The spirit acts as mediator between the two. The Igbo devil is the Ekwensu who is blamed for all evil deeds.
Morality among the Igbo is referred to as Ogu and Offo concepts which are the laws restrictive justice. Ogu and Ofo are responsible in vindicating anyone wrongly accused of evil deeds. He can be cleansed through prayers by Ogu-na-Ofo. An evil person is a bound to face the wrath the god of lighting and thunder known as Amodiaha.
The political organization of the traditional Igbo society is based on a republican and quasi -democratic system of government. The Igbo community is tightly knit and the system of government gives the people the security of equal citizenship. This was the kind of system practiced in the 15th century before the arrival of the Portuguese. Few notable towns like Onitsah were being ruled by Obi who was kings while the rural areas like Orochukwu and Nri Kingdom were ruled by priest kings. Area governments and Igbo communities were solely ruled by community council of elders (Gordon 2003, pp 37).
The Igbo believe in the existence of spiritual forces like the early religion of the Native Americans. Their world views are represented by both the spiritual and physical aspects in it. In the Igbo world view there is no sharp distinction of the supernatural and natural entities.
The shaman in the native America religion is like the sacred priest in the Igbo religion. They are specially gifted to communicate with the gods in the spiritual world. They believe in unseen spiritual forces that control the many happenings in the world. The prophets of the Igbo and shaman of the native Americans are consulted to cure mental and physical illness, to discern aspects behind bad luck, and to catch criminal. Some of the spiritual practices among the Igbo are adhering to annual festivals like the yam festival which is still practiced by the contemporary Yoruba people. There are also and dances which are a representation of spiritual aspects.
The aim of Igbo religion and customary practices is the creation of wholesomeness of an individual with the environment (Spirits, nature, animals, earth), and the community to create a complete circle and homogeneous harmony of life. The Odinani aspects among the Igbo people transform through Ifuru (mythology), ilu (proverbs), ukabuilu (parables), aha (names). Mmemme (festivals), Kentoaja (rituals) and egwu (music). The source of code among the Igbo is the Odinani.
Reference
Chigere, Nkem Hyginus M. V. (2001). Foreign Missionary Background and Indigenous Evangelization in Igboland, LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster. p. 113.
Gordon, April A. (2003). Nigeria's Diverse Peoples: A Reference Sourcebook, ABC-CLIO. p. 37.
Four Yogic Paths and Jainism Worksheet
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Jnana Yoga |
Karma Yoga |
Bhakti Yoga |
Raja Yoga |
Jainism |
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Explain the Meaning of the Name
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Jnana Yoga means the “path of knowledge” |
Karma yoga means “the path of action”. |
Bhakti Yoga means “the path of devotion” |
Raja yoga means “the path of self control and meditation” |
Jainism means “the path of non-violence” |
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Explain the Basic Concepts
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-concerns itself with enhancing the supreme and unique self -mostly favored by people who are intellectually oriented as its practices involve direct inquiry, thinking and study. |
- concerns itself with directing each individual activity to the supreme will. - Mostly favored by action oriented people. |
- concerns itself with supreme bliss and love enjoyment. - Excellent for individuals who are emotionally oriented. |
- concerns itself with mastering not only consciousness but thought as well hence the perfection of both the mind and body. - Has eight sequential steps that enhance God and truth realization. |
- Concerns itself with the enhancement of self-effort so as to liberate the soul while moving in the direction of divine consciousness. - has a principle of treating every being fairly and with respect as one of its core beliefs. |
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Describe the Practices
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-contemplation - direct inquiry - careful study - meditation
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- social work - protection of the environment - ecology |
- ceremonial processes - rituals and prayers
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- eight sequential steps - a separation of the five senses from the mind - meditation |
-celibacy - non-materialism - minimization or elimination of harming thoughts
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Describe the Goals
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- The use of analysis and inquiry to break the bondage to the material world. - differentiating what is unreal from what is unreal in the universe. |
- selflessness - actions aimed to aid or help humanity |
- truth realization - humility |
- emotions control - mental and physical control |
- non violence - truthfulness - sense control |
Differences between Hinduism and Jainism
There exist some big differences between Hinduism and Jainism. To begin with, it is important to note that Jainas do not accept some Hindu sacred books including but not limited to Puranas, Smrtis as well as Vedas. On the other hand, no scripture of Jainas is recognized by the Hindus. When it comes to the world’s origin, Hindus hold that there was a creative force behind it while Jainas are of the opinion that it is eternal. There is also another significant difference between Hinduism and Jainism when it comes to the objects of worship. Hinduism performs worship to a single God who is taken to be the Worlds creator.
In contrast, Jainism offers worship not to a single god but all those who have achieved Godhood. When it comes to the offering of sacrifices, Hinduism has a soft spot for sacrifices including animal sacrifices. However, Jainism does not recognize some Hindu sacrificial offerings like animal sacrifices.
According to Flugel (2006), Hinduism and Jainism also differ when it comes to the path of salvation with Jainism prescribing only a single salvation path referred to as Ratnatraya-marga. However, according to Hinduism, there is no single salvation path as one can attain the same in several ways. Lastly, it is important to note that some religious concepts found in Jainism are conspicuously absent in Hinduism. These include but are not limited to gunasthana, lesya as well as dharma (Jain 2009).
References
Flugel, P. Studies in Jaina history and culture: disputes and dialogues. Taylor & Francis. 2006
Jain, A.K. Faith & philosophy of Jainism. Gyan Publishing House. 2009
